The European Mosaic: rich diversity across a fragmented continent
Much of this blog was conceived prior to the COVID-19 virus becoming the deadly and disruptive phenomenon that shut down much of Europe and beyond. References to the impact of the virus have now been integrated. Further edits have been made since the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022. Even so, much of the earlier drafting remains relevant.
Introduction
By land mass Europe is the second smallest continent but it’s astonishing how fragmented it appears as a geopolitical map. From the classical times of the Greeks and Romans, through the changing fortunes of the Frankish, Saxon, Ottoman, Habsburg and Imperial Russian empires (to highlight a few), the Napoleonic wars, the 1849 revolutions, the two world wars of the twentieth century, the legacy of colonialism, various civil wars - the boundaries of Europe have frequently been redrawn. The end of the Cold War era, the collapse of the Soviet Union and the break-up of Yugoslavia added another layer of changes. Although Germany became unified and attempts to achieve the same for Cyprus have continued, several parts of Europe split into smaller states through:
The ‘new’ states and territories arising from the break-up of former Yugoslavia
the attainment of independence by the Baltic States and those in the Caucasus
Czechoslovakia dividing into the Czech Republic and Slovakia
the painful tragedy of the break-up of Yugoslavia
As one commentator has succinctly put it: “For centuries, Europe kept tearing itself apart, then putting itself together again, but all the while exploiting, colonising and bossing around other parts of the world… Of course, Europe means many different things. It is a continent with ill-defined borders, a shared culture and history, a contested set of values, a complex web of institutions and, not least, hundreds of millions of people, all with their own individual Europes.” Yet still there are a number of regions and territories that have, or seek, either their own identity, greater autonomy or, in some cases, outright independence. As others have remarked: “Europe is a patchwork of invisible and imagined borders that divide Europeans from one another in all countries and regions…. Europe is riven by fault lines, many of them all too easy to reopen.”
Magazine of the European Nuclear Disarmament campaign
The continent has never been truly unified and comprises a multiplicity of narratives rather than simply being a product of broad historical forces sweeping across its plains and mountains. In recent times, attempts to introduce some unifying pan-European measures have resulted in the creation of The Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE), The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) and its associated European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), along with the expansion of the European Union (EU). At a cultural level, the Union of European Football Associations (UEFA), other sporting bodies, and even the Eurovision Song Contest play a part in bringing a semblance of coherence to the concept of a European identity. However, it’s not just at an institutional level that such efforts have been made. Citizen and grassroots initiatives have also played their part, such as the protests and social movements of 1968 and the emergence of European Nuclear Disarmament (END) in the 1980’s that pursued ‘detente from below’ and opposed the siting of intermediate nuclear weapons in Europe by the two major superpowers. Today, the Green movement and campaigns against climate change are similarly grounded.
Historical promotions of the InterRail travel pass
Those were the days
Before the spread of COVID-19 and the subsequent shutdown of much of normal life, those who took Europe’s Interrail (for European residents) or Eurail (for non-Europeans) Passes, would not only cross various state borders, or would just as likely pass through regions with their own particular identities and aspirations. Some of these regions span national boundaries like Sápmi (Lapland) and the Basque Country. Others may be less familiar, such as Silesia or Polesia, straddling Poland, Belarus, Ukraine and Russia, that encompasses Europe’s largest wilderness area.
Demonstrations in support of Catalonia seeking independence from Spain
This mosaic has influenced travellers and holiday-makers in various ways whether, for instance, through civil unrest, difficulties in communicating in the local language, or in some cases just being made to feel more (or less) welcome in a place. Some will have been present in Berlin when the wall came down, witnessed the Catalan independence demonstrations in Barcelona, or been caught up at train stations as migrants tried to cross Europe such as been happening in 2022 with the outflow of Ukrainian refugees. Language may be more of a problem if visiting less popular or remoter places off the beaten track. Some cold shouldering might have been experienced in places where the rise of Airbnb has sparked resentment from locals in Amsterdam, Barcelona and other cities, or where the prevalence of stag and hen weekends has sullied the ambience of Prague, the Baltic capitals and elsewhere. Whilst conflict and potential political unrest in some places will put people off (travel advice should always be sought), for others a strong regional identity might arouse curiosity, perhaps feeling its best to go there and enjoy its distinctiveness before it becomes too well known! Moreover, the emergence of a new state might provide an opportunity to witness history in the making.
What I dub as the ‘European Mosaic’ is effectively multiple layers of historical, cultural, religious, political and geographical patterns as if they are a set of transparent maps that when laid on top of one another, reveal a complexity of structures, features, customs and influences across the different realms of human life. History and culture are embedded in today’s iteration of Europe with remnants from past ages still leaving their imprint that can never be eradicated.
While Europe can be sub-divided into broad regions such as Scandinavia and the Balkans, there are numerous smaller regions that contribute to the European jigsaw giving the continent the rich diversity it offers. Travellers have been able to tread lightly across this mosaic by visiting and appreciating particular features or places such as a majestic cathedral, a stunning beach or a trip along Europe’s various water arteries; or perhaps been able to immerse themselves in particular subjects and pastimes such as archaeological remains, regional cuisines, art, birdwatching, or pursue some other passionate interest.
Unresolved issues
The geopolitical complexities of the Caucasus region
Yet Europe is never really settled! Tensions remain. Crimea was annexed by Russia in 2014, and now (2022) Russia’s invasion of eastern Ukraine threatens not only that country but the wider geopolitical situation. The existence on the southern edges of European Russia of the ‘non-recognised states’ of Transnistria, Abkhazia, South Ossetia and Artsakh (formerly known as Nagorno-Karabakh) are states with limited international recognition, but in breaking away from their existing recognised states, they are seen as being aligned with Russia [see John Pilkington travels]. The other Russian republics of North Ossetia, Ingushetia, and Dagestan have all seen recent periods of instability and been affected by conflicts in Georgia and Chechnya. [Additional Note: the outbreak of conflict at the end of September 2020 between Armenia and Azerbaijan over Artsakh (Nagorno-Karabakh) further illustrates the latent tensions that reside in the Caucasus region.]
Russia also tried to prevent (unsuccessfully) Montenegro joining NATO and was suspected of being behind a coup attempt in 2016. In early 2018, reports indicated Russian armaments were being sent to police forces in Republika Srpska, the Serb-dominated region of Bosnia and Herzegovina as the country also considers joining NATO and the EU.
Protracted efforts to reach agreement with Greece over the name for the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (FYROM) finally achieved success in early 2019, when it formally became the Republic of North Macedonia. Meanwhile, the status of Kosovo has not finalised. Since its unilateral declaration of independence from Serbia in 2008, Kosovo remains only partially recognised by the international community. In 2018, ideas for a mutual land swap with Serbia surfaced, provoking critical international reaction fearing that it could restart war and legitimise ethnic cleansing.
The two communities of Belgium
In Belgium separation tendencies between Flanders (Dutch speaking) and Wallonia (French speaking) still exist that largely reflect their linguistic differences. This underlying issue contributed to the longest peacetime period for a country being without a government.
Notwithstanding these dispersed undercurrents of uncertainty in various parts of the continent, there still remains a de facto framework of understanding geopolitical territories beyond the principal European nation states.
Micro states
Europe has some of the smallest sovereign micro-states in the world with the Republics of San Marino and Malta; the Principalities of Lichtenstein, Monaco and Andorra; and the special status of the smallest of them all, Vatican City. Most of them participate in the Games of the Small States of Europe, a biennial multi-sport event for nine European small states, held since 1985.
Autonomous territories
While the micro states have sovereignty over their own territory, there are also a number of small autonomous territories. They commonly have their own government, executive branch, legislature, judiciary, police, and other trappings of independence, but are nonetheless under the ultimate sovereignty of another state and in particular remain dependent upon them for defence and security matters. These are:
Island of Sark with Guernsey in the far distance
Åland Islands (an external territory of Finland)
Faroe Islands (an external territory of Denmark in the North Atlantic Ocean)
Gibraltar (an overseas territory of the United Kingdom at the southern tip of the Iberian Peninsula)
Bailiwick of Guernsey (a British Crown dependency in the English Channel consisting of three separate sub-jurisdictions: Guernsey, Alderney, and Sark, the last of which was considered to be the last feudal state in Europe until 2008
Jersey (a British Crown dependency in the English Channel)
Isle of Man (a British Crown dependency in the Irish Sea)
Akrotiri and Dhekelia (an overseas territory of the United Kingdom on the island of Cyprus, largely comprising two military bases)
Mount Athos (a complex of monasteries forming an autonomous monastic state in the north east of Greece)
Some UK territories or British crown dependencies enjoy high levels of autonomy including issuing their own currencies. Interestingly, the islands around the UK noted above have always remained outside the EU. The ‘arms-length’ links with the UK have received increased scrutiny and public debate due to their traditional and controversial roles as tax havens, especially following the release of the Panama and Paradise Papers. Gibraltar, on the other hand, provides strategic naval facilities, has its own currency, voted in the 2016 EU Referendum, and operates a corporate tax regime that has, for instance, led to many gambling firms being domiciled in the territory.
Enclaves and exclaves
There are also enclaves and exclaves exhibiting their own idiosyncrasies. The most well-known (especially after hosting games in the 2018 FIFA Football World Cup) is probably the Russian enclave of Kaliningrad, squeezed between Poland and Lithuania on the Baltic Coast. Less well known is the small Turkish Cypriot enclave of Kokkina (known to Turkish Cypriots as Erenköy) on the north west coast of Cyprus which functions as a military camp of the North Cyprus Defence Force, guarded by a UN peacekeeping force.
There are other unusual cases. Spain possesses a small exclave, Llivia, that is surrounded by France in the Pyrennes as result of a 17th century treaty. The German village of Büsingen am Hochrhein is an exclave entirely surrounded by Switzerland, whilst the Italian village of Campione d'Italia in the Province of Comois is enclaved by Switzerland's Ticino canton and Lake Lugano. There is also the landlocked exclave of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic that is part of, but separated from, the rest of Azerbaijan by Armenia to the east and north, Iran to the south and west, and Turkey to the northwest. The territory has often been a focus of disputes and in 2016 was the subject of a four day war between Azerbaijan and Armenia.
Grafitti in support of Corsican nationalism
Other autonomies
Some islands or regions enjoy peaceful autonomy within their ‘parent country’. For instance, the Atlantic archipelagos of the Azores, Madeira and the Canary Islands appear content to remain under their respective mainland powers. Others agitate for greater political autonomy, if not outright independence, such as the cases of Catalonia, Corsica and Scotland, where each is pursuing their paths in different ways. Political graffiti often becomes a regular sight for travellers in such places.
Surreal offer by President Trump to buy Greenland off Denmark in 2019
After allowing Iceland to gain full independence in 1944, Denmark has developed interesting relationships with its autonomous territories. The Faroe Islands and Greenland have each achieved a semi-detached relationship with Denmark. Although Denmark has been part of the EU since 1973, these territories have exercised an autonomous foreign policy and remain outside the EU. In fact, Greenland actually voted to leave the EU in 1982. After negotiating a special relationship and funding arrangements with the EU, it achieved autonomy within the Kingdom of Denmark in 1985 although some Greenlandic people still argue for full independence. The current arrangements mean its people still remain EU citizens by virtue of Danish nationality law and within the meaning of EU treaties. [N.B. A diplomatic stir and local amusement was caused in August 2019 when US President Trump offered to buy the world’s biggest island!]
These different tendencies raise an interesting question as to what drives or explains these divergent forces. Do the inhabitants of some territories believe they are exploited or deprived vis a vis the national state, or is it more a desire to assert the region’s culture and/or language that has been under threat? From a broader historical perspective, it would be wrong to assume that because a major archipelago or region has been stable and content with the relationship with its ‘homeland’, this will never be tested or change at some future point, even if the circumstances cannot presently be foreseen.
Clearly, some territories appear to have achieved an acceptable arrangement or tacit agreement, whilst others exist in a state of underlying tension which may only need a trigger to ignite it, manifesting itself in a political or armed struggle, or a combination of both. There is also the reality that distinct peoples do not always neatly reside within any particular territorial borders, and as noted, can transcend existing state borders as is the case with the Basques or Albanians. Of course, under its founding Charter, the United Nations guarantees the right of self-determination. However, this does not indicate how the decision is to be made, nor what the outcome should be, such as independence, federation, protection, some form of autonomy or full assimilation.
Other expressions of regional identity
Of course, there always have been strong regional distinctions across Europe, whether those especially familiar with holiday-makers such as Brittany, Andalusia, Provence, Tuscany and the heavily German speaking region of South Tyrol in Italy, or perhaps others like the Ruhr, Silesia or Transylvania. Ultimately, they express an identity that either singularly or in combination reflects a geographic space, historical legacy, a language, customs or other cultural expressions such as cuisine.
The support for the Celtic languages of Wales, Scotland, Ireland, Cornwall and Brittany provide strength to these regions’ (or indeed nations’) identities. Similarly, the Åland Islands, lying in the Gulf of Bothnia between Sweden and Finland, are an autonomous part of Finland even though their inhabitants speak Swedish.
Dutch cheeses on display - cheese is a common regional produce
On another level the EU has implicitly acknowledged regional distinctiveness through its protected produce names, even if many of them are defined by a town or place rather than wider region. National and regional dishes such as Swiss fondue may speak for themselves, but legal protections ensure that only products genuinely originating in that region are allowed to be identified as such for commercial purposes.
Sport provides a further means for regions or territories to express their identity. The establishment of particular tournaments enable peoples to gain international exposure. Two notable, but relatively unknown, tournaments are:
i. the Small Island Games for which most of the 24 members come from Europe, although oddly the 2019 Games were held in the non-island member, Gibraltar!
CONIFA’s new logo launched in 2020
ii. the CONIFA Football World Cup organised by the Confederation of Independent Football Associations, whose members exist outside of FIFA. It’s a global non-profit organization that supports representatives of international football teams from nations, de-facto nations, regions, minority peoples and sports-isolated territories. Founded in June 2013, CONIFA organized its first tournament in June 2014 in Ostersund, Sweden. North Macedonia was due to host the 2020 CONIFA World Cup for 16 teams from around the world, but was forced to postpone due to the COVID-19 crisis. Overall there are now 50 members of which over half are from Europe. The location of the following member territories may be fairly familiar: Cornwall, Crimea, Greenland, Isle of Man, Jersey, Monaco, Sardinia, Northern Cyprus, and Yorkshire. However, some of the following may be less so:
Abkhazia – a partially recognised but de-facto independent and self-governing state that has been part of western Georgia
Artsakh (formerly Nagorno- Karabakh) - a partially recognised but de-facto independent and self-governing state in the Caucasus lying between Armenia and Azerbaijan
Chameria - a name used mostly by Albanians for parts of the coastal region of Epirus in southern Albania and the historical Greek region of Epirus
County of Nice - an historic region within Southern France
Délvidék - represents the Hungarian minority largely located in Vojvodina, Northern-Serbia
Donetsk People’s Republic - a self-proclaimed (but not internationally recognised) state in the Donetsk Oblast of Ukraine arising from the conflict on the borders with Russia
Felvidék - represents the Hungarian-speaking minority in Southern Slovakia that makes up nearly 10% of the territory of modern Slovakia
Franconia – encompasses the eastern part of the historic Duchy of Franconia covering north Bavaria, parts of Baden-Württemberg, South Thuringia and Hesse
Karpatalya – represents Hungarians largely concentrated in the Zakarpattia Oblast, an administrative province located in southwestern Ukraine
Lazistan - represents the multi-ethnic peoples of the Eastern Black Sea Region of Turkey in the Pontic Mountains
Luhansk People’s Republic - a self-proclaimed (but not internationally recognised) independent state in the Donbass area, arising from the conflict on the Ukrainian border with Russia
Occitania - the name given to the areas of Italy, France and Spain where the Occitan language is spoken. It has been recognized as a linguistic and cultural concept since the Middle Ages, but never became a legal or political entity under this name
Padania - a regional name, largely espoused by separatists, for northern Italy encompassing the Po Valley
Raetia - situated in the Alps of east Switzerland and north Italy
Romani People - an ethnic group living mostly in Europe and the Americas (often referred to as a “stateless nation”) whose team acts as a vehicles to highlight the ongoing discrimination of the Romani People across Europe
Sapmi – the indigenous name for Lapland
Skaneland - historical and cultural region of Southern Scandinavia, consisting of three Swedish provinces and the Danish island, Bornholm
South Ossetia - a partially recognised but de-facto independent and self-governing state that has been part of northern Georgia
Székely Land - a historic and ethnographic area in Romania, inhabited mainly by the Székelys, a subgroup of the Hungarian people from eastern Transylvania
Transnitria - a partially recognised but de-facto independent and self-governing state that has been part of Moldova
Western Armenia - the western part of the Armenians Highlands, which today lies within the territory of Turkey
This listing clearly illustrates the richness and diversity of the European mosaic…. and this forms just a small fraction of it!
Out of Europe territories
Largely reflecting the legacy of past colonial empires, Europe also extends beyond its normal continental definition. This is often caricatured as being from the Atlantic to the Urals, and from the Mediterranean Sea to the Arctic Ocean. Attention has already been given to Denmark’s links with Greenland which is part of North America. Spain also retains two enclaves of Cueta and Melilla across the Straits of Gibraltar on the north African coast of Morocco, which have been in the news as routes of migration into Europe.
Further away, France has overseas departments and territories of varying degrees of autonomy which send elected political representatives to the National Assembly in Paris and are part of the Eurozone. These include French Guiana (South America), Guadeloupe and Martinique (Caribbean), St Pierre & Miquelon (off Newfoundland), Reunion and Mayotte (Indian Ocean) and other territories in the Pacific region. A Reunion football side also gained attention by progressing through three rounds to reach the last 32 of the 2019-20 national Coupe de France – only the second team from an overseas territory to achieve this. Their romantic sporting adventure came to an end with a 1-0 away defeat to Epinal, but only after extra time!
Dutch Caribbean territories (N.B. the term Netherlands Antilles has now been superseded)
The Netherlands also has Caribbean interests with six Caribbean islands that are integrated into the EU structure, being regarded as overseas territories. The three islands of Aruba, Curacao and Sint Maarten are defined as autonomous countries within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba are classed as special municipalities within the Netherlands and are directly administered by the Dutch government. The residents of these six islands are Dutch citizens and consequently also European Union citizens, even though the islands they live on are not regarded as part of EU territory and use currencies other than the Euro. The EU has a range of complex arrangements with numerous territories both within and without its borders that go far beyond any cases addressed here.
Future prospects
The break-up of Yugoslavia, the collapse of the Greek economy, the impact of terrorism, the migration crisis and now the invasion of Ukraine have all affected the outlook for travellers in various ways. Such events can prevent or put people off visiting affected places, or alternatively, attract them almost as an act of solidarity, as was seen with visitors supporting the Greek economy during its financial Euro-crisis.
Rather than encouraging Europe, and the EU in particular, to adopt a common approach, the recent and continuing migrant crisis has instead led to increased fracturing. Unlike the sympathies extended to Ukrainians fleeing from the invasion of their country by Russia, many immigrant and refugee populations, especially from outside of Europe, are finding it harder to gain acceptance and continue to face harassment, discrimination and hostility. This reaction has been accompanied by the rise of populist and nationalist forces in countries like Hungary, Poland, Austria, Italy where more authoritarian leaders and policies have come to the fore. Moreover, such forces are even establishing footholds in stable social democracies like Sweden and Norway. Arguably, the most significant political expression of this populist tendency was the decision of the UK to leave the EU following the 2016 referendum.
The contentious issue of the Irish border could raise the prospect of a Border Poll and bring eventual Irish reunification a step closer.
Today the impact of the Brexit process keeps questions over the unity of the United Kingdom on the agenda. Brexit continues to throw the nature and operation of the Irish Border into focus and the potential unification of Ireland remains a live issue. The campaign for an independent Scotland continues and calls have also been heard for a referendum on Welsh independence. Unease about the existing structure of the UK also exists in parts of England such as Yorkshire and Cornwall advocating a stronger regional voice. The future constitutional shape of the UK / British Isles is under challenge.
Under a shifting global geopolitical order, new forces and changes to the European mosaic will continue to influence the travel plans of many. With Europe seemingly ill at ease with itself, it is difficult to predict where any future demands for increased autonomy or independence might arise.
German border controls being implemented during the COVID-19 crisis
Impact of COVID-19
When COVID-19 was infecting the world, one might have seen Europe come together in the face of this common foe, but instead fears of its spread led to curbs, bans and border closures resulting in international travel restrictions being placed on people entering countries. Even though viruses do not respect borders these protective actions were often (initially at least) in tune with wider populist sentiments.
In some quarters a combination of public health and economic impacts were seen as threatening the very existence of the EU itself. Perhaps, after issuing an apology for a lack of initial solidarity with Italy, the EU belatedly agreed a EUR540 bn rescue package to help the recovery. This may have provided some new glue for binding member states together, but differences remained about the structuring and distribution of the monies. There are concerns within the EU that the risk of an uneven economic recovery ultimately poses a threat to the credibility and solidarity of the European Union.
Conclusions
As we emerge from the current public health crisis, it is fascinating to see how people approach the opportunity to travel again. Unfortunately, a lot of people will have lost income over the crisis period and will not be in a position to travel as they previously had done. Airlines, holiday companies, resorts, hotels and the tourism sector have generally been among the hardest hit by the coronavirus crisis, and some businesses have will struggled to survive. Conservation and eco-tourism are also being adversely affected around the world. There could be some initial nervousness about visiting places that have particularly suffered. When people begin to feel like travelling and holidaying, they may choose to stay closer to home and get to know their own country more. Travelling less, could actually mean travelling better in terms of seeking a quality experience and improving their carbon footprint.
Kotor Bay - how soon will tourists return to this popular area of Montenegro?
One can envisage a number of countries and regions looking to tourism as a crucial way of aiding their economic recovery, even if this might well be against a background of reduced enthusiasm for cruising, a reduction in budget airlines and the operation of fewer routes, especially those linking with smaller regional airports. For independently minded travellers, will there be a revived curiosity for discovering and exploring more off-the-beaten track or exotic sounding places? Will countries like Montenegro and Albania that were making major efforts to draw visitors to their Adriatic shores and mountainous scenery, be able to succeed in welcoming back tourists?
The widespread availability of a vaccine in Europe appears to have encouraged a desire among many to rush to the departure lounges of airports and ferry terminals. Many heavily tourist dependent destinations are eager to see holiday-makes back. However, the spectacle of long queues at airports and ferry terminals due to labour and staff shortages along with numerous flight or ferry cancellations has not made overseas travelling from the UK especially attractive for many in 2022, and no doubt the ‘cost of living crisis’ will further dampen the demand for any significant new uptake in travelling.
The impact of COVID-19 has added a further layer to the European mosaic, and the outcome of the conflict in Ukraine now add further complexities. Even though efforts to resolve pre-existing and continuing geopolitical issues will continue, the process of economic recovery and related shifting travel and leisure behaviours will be central to the next phase of changes in this dynamic mosaic.
[Updated 11/06/2022]
Selected further reading
Books
David Adler and Rosemary Bechler (edited collection) (2020), A Vision for Europe 2020: Nothing But an Alternative, Eris, ISBN: 9781912475285
Mikael Bodlore-Penlaez (2011), Atlas of Stateless Nations in Europe, Ylolfa, ISBN: 9781847713797
Tim Marshall (2019), Shadowplay: Behind the Lines and Under Fire: The Inside Story of Europe's Last War, Elliott & Thompson, ISBN: 9781783964451
Nick Middleton (2015), An Atlas of Countries that Don’t Exist: A Compendium of Fifty Unrecognised and Largely Unnoticed States, Macmillan, ISBN: 9781447295273
Zoran Nikolic (2019), The Atlas of Unusual Borders: Discover intriguing boundaries, territories and geographical curiosities, Harper Collins, ISBN: 9780008351779
Simon Winder (2019), Lotharingia: A Personal History of Europe’s Lost Country, Picador, ISBN: 9781509803255. Also see review.
Articles
Alberto Alemanno, We lived the European dream. Will any politician stand up for open borders?, The Guardian, 22/05/2020
Timothy Garton Ash, Why we must not let Europe break apart, The Guardian, 09/05/2019
Charles Grant, How coronavirus is reshaping Europe in dangerous ways, The Guardian, 14/05/2020
Natalie Nougayrède, For millions of Europeans, the war did not end in 1918, The Guardian, 06/11/2018
Thomas Serrier and Stephane Michonneau, One Heritage, one story: that’s not the Europe we know, The Guardian, 17/04/2019
Ed Vulliamy, Fair Europe, fare thee well: my love letter to a continent, The Guardian, 08/02/2020
